KNOWLEDGE CENTRE, CULTURE & INTERVIEWS

How I Reconstructed an Unwritten Ancient African Language

Published

2 years ago

November 11, 2021

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By H. Ekkehard Wolff

Africa is humankind’s home continent. Homo sapiens, with the anatomical and cognitive capacity to have human language as we know it today, originated in Africa between 300,000 and 200,000 years ago.

Then, as an abundant fossil and archaeological record makes clear, some of our human ancestors left Africa. They spread to neighbouring continents, taking their languages with them. Others remained behind; their descendants speak what we call “African languages”, pointing to these communities’ long histories on the home continent.

There were also those who migrated out of Africa and whose descendants later returned. These include the ancestors of the so-called Ethiosemitic languages in Eritrea and Ethiopia, some 3,000 years ago. The most recent and dramatic returns came with Arabo-Islamic invasions beginning in 614 CE, European colonialism after 1492 CE, and the post-colonial work migrations of the 20th and 21st centuries.

One result of all this movement is the geographic spread and continuous development of human languages – most of them unwritten. It is difficult to study and reconstruct them: unlike with excavated finds in palaeoanthropology, human language does not leave fossils behind unless in writing. Very few living or extinct languages left behind written texts. Those that did include the Ancient Egyptian hieroglyphics dating back about 5,000 years, and languages ancestral to modern Semitic which left written records that also cover several millennia, the oldest from Akkadian in modern day Iraq in cuneiform script.

For more than 50 years, I have devoted considerable research efforts to the study of the so-called Chadic languages. These are spoken west, south and east of Lake Chad (hence their name) in Central Africa. The widely known and best researched Chadic language is Hausa, spoken as one of Africa’s major languages across large parts of West and Central Africa by some 80 million people or more. Unfortunately, knowledge about Hausa’s approximately 200 language relatives in Nigeria, Cameroon, and Chad is coming in only very slowly.

What researchers most want to know is how these languages have developed as a family from a common ancient proto-language; they also want to unpack how languages relate to other and better known language families – Ancient Egyptian, Berber (Amazigh), Cushitic, Semitic, and possibly Omotic – with whom they are assumed to form a common language phylum, Afroasiatic.

The results of my research will be presented in two books. The first volume focuses on the origin of vowels in these languages. The second and final volume will focus on sound changes affecting consonants in these languages. It is set to be published in 2023.

I used well established linguistic techniques to reconstruct one of the ancestral languages likely spoken a few thousand years ago in the region around Lake Chad in Central Africa and that was ancestral to about 80 present-day languages in the area. Until now, these languages were practically unwritten.

Proto-languages

Professional linguists use a number of established tools to unearth language histories even in the absence of written texts. Two of these are internal reconstruction and the comparative method. These were developed some 150 years ago by the Neogrammarian School in Leipzig, whose scholars successfully reconstructed the Indo-European language family relationships that link modern and ancient European languages like English and Ancient Greek to modern and ancient Asian languages like Urdu and Ancient Sanskrit.

My own research targets the linguistic history of the Afroasiatic language phylum. A phylum, in linguistics, is a group of languages related to each other less closely than those that make up a family. Together, the Afroasiatic phylum consists of approximately 400 languages. Most are spoken in the northern half of Africa from Morocco and Mauritania in the west to Egypt and Tanzania in the east, and in adjacent parts of Asia. They rank among the oldest living languages in terms of traceable records. Experts have estimated that Proto-Afroasiatic emerged in Africa between 12,000 and 16,000 years ago.

My research focused on the almost 200 Chadic languages spoken west, south and east of Lake Chad in Nigeria, Cameroon and Chad. They form the largest family within the Afroasiatic phylum. There are four branches; the Central Chadic or “Biu-Mandara” consists of about 80 languages. The aim was to reconstruct the sound system and vocabulary of Proto-Central Chadic.

My main source was an online database containing 250 word meanings like “compound”, “cow”, “to eat”, “millet”, etc. with data from up to 66 living Central Chadic language varieties provided by linguist Richard Gravina, who undertook a pioneering effort to reconstruct Proto-Central Chadic in his 2014 PhD dissertation, though using a different methodological approach. Altogether I ended up analysing about 5,500 words from between four and 50 modern languages.

I meticulously analysed each word to delineate its historical development from Proto-Central Chadic to its present-day forms in modern languages, covering a time-depth of potentially thousands of years.

A profound view

No language develops in a vacuum. Almost all the words I researched changed sounds over time. This would partly have been because of the language’s own rules and regularities in inter-generational language transfer. But sound changes are also influenced by locally occurring new speech habits adopted by following generations of speakers and forming new dialects, or by borrowing words and expressions from neighbouring languages.

Nonetheless, languages also retain features of linguistic heritage, like from the ultimate proto-language; in this case, Proto-Afroasiatic.

Proto-Central-Chadic only knew one true vowel, “a”. It used “y” and “w” to serve, at the same time, as vowels “i” and “u” when in syllable-nucleus position (the centre of the syllable). Take the modern Mandara word, ira for “head”. In Proto-Central-Chadic, it was *ghwna. I was able to deduce this by understanding vowel substitutions and word sound changes.

Consonants changed, too. The word for “sheep” was *tama in Proto-Central-Chadic; the m became w, and suffixes changed over time too, leading to the modern Mandara word for “sheep”, kyawe.

New light

I hope this work will be a step towards unearthing some of the area’s currently unwritten history. By comparing sounds and words of modern languages, it is possible to detect population movements and migrations in the past, since people adopt sounds and words from other languages with whom they have been in contact over a certain period of time. Reconstructed vocabulary also sheds light on cultural items and people’s habitats, including the spread of ideas and the importance of certain concepts.

H. Ekkehard Wolff is an Emeritus Professor of African Linguistics, University of Leipzig

Courtesy: The Conversation

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What is Zakat al-Fitr and When to Pay it?

Published

4 weeks ago

April 9, 2024

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As the holy month of Ramadan draws to a close, Muslims around the globe prepare for one of Islam’s most significant acts of charity – Zakat al-Fitr. This pivotal practice not only marks the culmination of a month dedicated to fasting and spiritual growth but also emphasizes Islam’s deep-rooted principles of community support and compassion. But what exactly is Zakat al-Fitr, and when is the ideal time to fulfill this important Islamic duty? Dive into our comprehensive guide to understand the essence, timing, and impact of Zakat al-Fitr, ensuring you’re well-prepared to participate in this act of kindness and solidarity.

The Essence of Zakat al-Fitr

Zakat al-Fitr, often simply called Fitrana, is a form of charity given to the poor at the end of the Islamic holy month of Ramadan. Think of it as a purification tax for the fasting person, cleansing minor transgressions committed during the month. But it’s more than just a corrective measure; it’s a proactive step towards fostering community spirit and ensuring that everyone, regardless of their financial situation, can join in the joyous celebrations of Eid al-Fitr.

Timing is Key: When to Pay Zakat al-Fitr

The timing for Zakat al-Fitr is quite specific – it should be given before the Eid al-Fitr prayers. This precise timing ensures that the charity reaches those in need in time for them to make use of it for their Eid celebrations. Imagine you are preparing a banquet and want to ensure everyone has something to bring to the table. Paying Zakat al-Fitr just before Eid is akin to inviting everyone to join the feast, ensuring no one is left out of the celebration.

Who Should Pay Zakat al-Fitr?

Zakat al-Fitr is obligatory for all Muslims who have the means to do so. This includes adults and children, with the head of the household often paying on behalf of the young ones. Imagine if every member of a family plants a seed in a garden; over time, these seeds grow into a lush oasis. Similarly, when each family member contributes to Zakat al-Fitr, it strengthens the communal bonds and spreads happiness far and wide.

How Much to Pay?

The amount of Zakat al-Fitr is not measured in currency but in the staple foodstuff of your community – be it wheat, barley, dates, or rice. The Prophet Muhammad specified it as one Sa’a (approximately between 2.6 kg to 3kg) of food for each person. In today’s terms, many scholars suggest translating this amount into your local currency, making it easier to fulfill this obligation. Picture filling a basket with enough food to feed a family; that’s the spirit you are aiming to replicate with your contribution.

The Beneficiaries of Your Generosity

Zakat al-Fitr is intended for the poor and the needy, a means to spread happiness and allow everyone to celebrate Eid with dignity and joy. It is like sending out invitations to a grand dinner where everyone is a guest of honor. By giving Zakat al-Fitr, you are ensuring that the less fortunate are not forgotten but are instead an integral part of the communal celebration.

The Impact of Zakat al-Fitr: A Ripple Effect

The beauty of Zakat al-Fitr lies in its immediate and far-reaching impact. It is not just about the act of giving but about the connections and community it builds. Like a single lamp lighting others, your act of generosity can brighten the lives of many, creating a ripple effect of kindness and compassion that echoes beyond Eid.

Personal Stories of Zakat al-Fitr

Let us consider a story to bring this to life. Imagine a small community where every household sets aside a portion of their staple food for Zakat al-Fitr. As the collection grows, so does a sense of unity and anticipation. On the day of Eid, this collective effort translates into a shared celebration, with everyone -regardless of their economic status – joining in the feast. It is a beautiful illustration of how individual acts of kindness can weave a tapestry of communal joy.

Making Zakat al-Fitr Part of Your Ramadan

Incorporating Zakat al-Fitr into your Ramadan practice enriches your spiritual experience, reminding us that Islam is a religion of balance – between personal devotion and social responsibility. As we seek closeness to Allah through fasting and prayer, we are also called to extend our compassion to those around us.

Embracing the Spirit of Zakat al-Fitr

As we approach the end of Ramadan, let’s embrace Zakat al-Fitr not just as a duty, but as an opportunity to express our gratitude for all we have been given by giving back to those in need. In doing so, we not only purify our own fasts but contribute to a wider celebration of love, compassion, and communal solidarity.

Zakat al-Fitr is a beautiful tradition that encapsulates the essence of Ramadan: reflection, renewal, and generosity. By understanding its significance and meticulously observing its practice, we not only comply with a religious obligation but also contribute to a more inclusive, compassionate, and joyful Eid celebration for everyone. Let’s carry the spirit of Zakat al-Fitr in our hearts and actions, making it a beacon of light that guides us from the sacred month of Ramadan into the rest of the year.

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Exploring Iftar Traditions Around the Globe

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1 month ago

April 1, 2024

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By Aamer Yaqub

As the crescent moon marks the beginning of Ramadan, Muslims worldwide prepare for a month of spiritual reflection, community, and of course, delicious food! Every evening at sunset comes Iftar, the time to break the fast and enjoy a shared meal with loved ones. But Iftar traditions vary greatly across the globe, offering a fascinating glimpse into different cultures. From savory dishes in Morocco to sweet treats in Indonesia, join us on a delicious journey as we explore Exploring Iftar Traditions Around the Globe!

The Essence of Iftar: Exploring Diverse Traditions Around the World

Imagine the Maghreb call to prayer echoing through the city as families in Morocco prepare for Iftar. The table is a colorful mosaic of dates, harissa (a savory tomato and lentil soup), and chakra (flower-shaped cookies coated with honey and sesame seeds). The act of breaking the fast with a date isn’t just a Moroccan tradition; it’s a practice deeply rooted in Islamic teachings and followed across many countries, symbolizing the simplicity and purity of the Prophet Muhammad’s (peace be upon him) own practices. This gesture, as small as it may seem, embodies the essence of Iftar: a return to simplicity, gratitude, and unity.

A Feast Under the Stars in the Middle East

Journey with me to the Middle East, where the Iftar scene transforms into a lavish spread under the stars. In countries like the United Arab Emirates and Saudi Arabia, families and friends gather in majlis tents to share Iftar, reflecting a sense of community and generosity. The air is filled with the aroma of spiced lamb, kabsa, and the sweetness of kunafa. The majlis, traditionally a place of social gathering, becomes a symbol of togetherness and hospitality during Ramadan, embodying the spirit of sharing and giving.

The Simplicity and Serenity of Southeast Asia

Our next stop is Southeast Asia, where the essence of Iftar shines through the simplicity and serenity of its observance. In Indonesia, the world’s largest Muslim-majority country, the breaking of the fast is often preceded by the consumption of kolak, a sweet coconut milk-based dessert with bananas and sweet potatoes. This humble dish highlights the importance of gratitude and moderation, reminding us that the spirit of Ramadan lies not in the extravagance of the meal but in the sincerity of the gathering.

The Communal Harmony of South Asia

In the bustling streets of South Asia, Iftar brings a moment of calm and togetherness amidst the chaos. Pakistan and Bangladesh are known for their Iftar bazaars, where streets come alive with vendors selling a variety of snacks and sweets. Samosas, pakoras, and jalebis are shared amongst neighbors and friends, illustrating the communal harmony that Ramadan fosters. It’s a scene where the rich tapestry of South Asian culture is on full display, with Iftar serving as a bridge between diverse communities.

The Global Melting Pot

As we journey from one country to another, exploring the traditions of Iftar, we realize that it is more than just a meal; it is a global melting pot of traditions, flavors, and stories. Each dish, each gathering, tells a story of heritage, faith, and unity. The essence of Iftar lies in its ability to bring people together, transcending geographical and cultural boundaries. It is a time when differences are set aside, and the universal values of kindness, generosity, and compassion are celebrated.

As the sun sets, signaling the end of the day’s fast, millions worldwide gather for Iftar, embodying the essence of Iftar: exploring diverse traditions around the world. This meal, far more than just nourishment, marks a time of joy, reflection, and community. Spanning from Cairo’s liveliness to Indonesia’s tranquility, Iftar traditions showcase a rich cultural tapestry. In embracing these varied customs and flavors, we uncover the unity and diversity of the Muslim Ummah. The essence of Iftar reminds us of Islam’s beauty and diversity, urging us to appreciate our global community’s shared values of community, gratitude, and reflection as we break our fast, infused with the spirit of Ramadan.

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How Does Ijara Financing Work?

Published

1 year ago

January 2, 2023

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Ijara financing is a type of Islamic financing that is based on the principles of profit and loss sharing. It is a popular financing option in countries with a large Muslim population and is also used by non-Muslim businesses and individuals who are interested in ethical and socially responsible financing.

In an ijara financing arrangement, the lender provides the borrower with the necessary funds to purchase an asset, such as real estate or equipment. The borrower then pays back the loan in installments, which include both the principal and a profit margin for the lender. The profit margin is calculated as a percentage of the asset’s value and is determined based on market conditions and the lender’s risk assessment.

One of the key benefits of ijara financing is that it is based on the principles of risk sharing. This means that the lender and the borrower share the risks and rewards associated with the asset. If the asset increases in value, the borrower benefits by paying a lower profit margin. On the other hand, if the asset decreases in value, the lender bears a greater share of the loss.

Another advantage of ijara financing is that it is considered a more ethical and socially responsible form of financing. In traditional financing arrangements, the lender charges interest on the loan, which is considered to be forbidden by Islamic law. Ijara financing avoids this issue by structuring the financing as a profit and loss sharing arrangement, rather than a loan with interest.

There are several types of ijara financing, including ijara wa iqtina (lease-to-own), ijara muntahia bitamleek (diminishing musharaka), and ijara thumma al bai (lease and then sale). Each type of ijara financing has its own unique features and benefits and is suitable for different types of assets and borrowers.

To participate in ijara financing, borrowers must meet certain criteria, including having a good credit history and being able to provide collateral or a down payment. Lenders may also require the borrower to have a long-term lease or purchase agreement in place, to ensure that the asset will generate sufficient income to cover the profit margin.

Overall, ijara financing is a flexible and ethical financing option that is suitable for a wide range of assets and borrowers. It provides a way for borrowers to purchase assets while sharing the risks and rewards with the lender and is a viable alternative to traditional financing arrangements that involve interest.

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